whose imagined community summary

This diverse and motley group of people were often engaged in relations of conflict, animosity, and oppression-subjugation. I view, church members a local villagers as different categories of communities. When someone dies for their country, what is their sacrifice actually for? 36; 87; 135. According to Anderson's thesis the development of printing press alongside the Protestant revolution in Europe . by a clueless student for other clueless students. Shared identities are real and are not necessarily negative. This is opposed to what was originally believed of a nation. As the definitive paradigm (so far) of Benedict Andersons titular concept outlined throughout the text of Imagined Communities, the virtual nation-building daily established, torn down and rebuilt with the various individual entities that collective make up social media have not just taken the authors ideas in a new direction, they have created a genuinely revolutionary moment in time which anybody and everybody can instantly be established as the author of the communitys narrative. You can help us out by revising, improving and updating The imagined community populated by people around the world who, recalling the author's definition, "will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them" have been endowed with the ability to utilize the most effective resource available for communion of a shared idea, belief or ideology. Anderson calls nations imagined communities because: According to Anderson, nations as imagined communities arose in response to print capitalism, or the use of the printing press. This is when print media emerged as a major cultural force. At the same time, it also helped to create the awareness of a difference between all such speakers of one language on the one hand, and those who did not speak that language. The Fruits of Macaulay's Poison Tree (1985) 5. world, working their way cheerlessly through musty files of admi- 1 Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and nistrative reports and official correspondence in colonial archives in Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983). There has never been a great thinker treating this concept as thoroughly as other concepts. nations are imagined-suppressing some dialects while exalting others, and eclipsing the hold of the older sacral languages (though the argument does not seem to fit Chinese and Arabic as easily as Anderson suggests). This later phase is the period of nationalism. Struggling with distance learning? McDowell, L. (1999) Gender, identity, and place. Bairner, A. Transition in these to vernaculars, sovereign states and homogenous, empty time, respectively, made it possible to think nation. Chatterjee is one of the leading members of the well-known subaltern studies collective of scholars whereas a representation of the traditional Marxist school of thought is made by Hobsbawm. Written by people who wish to remain anonymous. In his definition, imagined communities are "socially-organized communities imagined by people who perceive themselves as part of that group." He used the term to describe how nation-states were formed, prompted by the invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes von Gutenberg. The term imagined communities was coined by the British political scientist and historian Benedict Anderson. Teach your students to analyze literature like LitCharts does. It had to overcome the subordination arising out of the strategy of the rule of colonial difference the preservation of the alienness of the ruling group which was pursued by the colonial state. We cite peer reviewed academic articles wherever possible and reference our sources at the end of our articles. The Eurocentrism Critique (From Postcolonial Critics), 3. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/13532944.2012.706997, Toplak, C. & Sumi, S. (2012). It is in this sovereign spiritual domain that nationalism is said to have begun. First published in 1983, the book underwent two subsequent revisions in 1991 and 2006. Learn more about our academic and editorial standards. Overtime, the domain became more extensive and morphed into the postcolonial state which, in India at least, was built on the idea of the modern liberal-democratic state. For instance,the operations of large banks and hedge funds in New York can set off financial ripples that affect the livelihoods of factory workers in Bangladesh. Using a historical materialist approach, he describes the major factors contributing to the emergence of nationalism in the world during the past three centuries in his seminal work, In this paper we will summarize Andersons ideas regarding the conceptualization of the nation as an imagined community, of homogenous, empty time and print-capitalism. To understand the essential features of nations and the remarkable power they seem to hold over their citizens, Anderson points to the continuities among nations that formed in different eras and places, many of which he argues result from countries simply copying one another. In McClintocks words, all nationalisms are gendered, all are invented, and all are dangerous (McClintock, 1993). Such an ideology is of recent origin but uses history to justify the notion that the community (as defined in recent history) and therefore the communal identity have existed . It is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion.. Until the 19th century, much of Europe existed as muti-ethnic empires such as the Austro-Hungarian empire, the German empire, the Russian empire and so on. There were still differences between these nations, however: for instance, the huge and diverse archipelago of Indonesia, colonized but ruled indirectly be the Dutch, became a single nation after World War II in large part because of the spread of standard Malay (now called bahasa Indonesia) and the centralization of higher education in a few universities in western Java. https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/admin/, Simple Explanation of Imagined Communities, Strengths and Benefits of the Imagined Communities Concept, 1. In this time, colonial historians have been debating what had become of the idea and who was responsible for it. It is from these debates that emerged Benedict Andersons subtle and original observation that nations were not the determinate products of given sociological conditions such as language or race or religion [but that] they had been, in Europe and everywhere else in the world, imagined into existence. The key to situating official nationalism willed merger of nation and dynastic empire is to remember that it developed after, and in reaction to, the popular national movements proliferating in Europe since the 1 820s. Definitions and examples of 136 literary terms and devices. While the impact of print-capitalism is unheralded, it does not imply a simple transposition of European patterns or standards to the development of the national language in the colonies. In his seventh chapter, Anderson turns to The Last Wave of nationalisms, which arose after World War II in Africa and Asia, specifically in colonies rebelling against European rule. explain nationalism. In his fourth chapter, Anderson turns to the earliest nationalist movements, which were in the Americas (not in Europe) and led by the elite creole classes (not by the disenfranchised masses). Creating notes and highlights requires a free LitCharts account. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 20(1), 7-28. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2012.656949. The Question and Answer section for Imagined Communities is a great This standard theory of nationalist history necessarily converges with Andersons formulations. But in the spiritual domain the inner domain which marks cultural identity, colonial distinctness must be preserved. Global Studies in Culture and Power. Benedict Anderson's "Imagined Communities" has become the bible of nationalism in which he examines the origin and spread of nationalism. Also, Anderson viewed that print capitalism laid the basis for national consciousness by creating a unified field of communication, languages-of-power and fixity of language. Hey! Whereas in the other fatality, mortality, capitalism finds a truly tenacious enemy, whose importance was always felt; hence the appeal of the great world religions and the many forms of ancestor worship. However, in our increasingly connected and globalised world, the internet provides us with a shared digital culture that allows us to communicate with one another . How imagine communities related to our topic nationalism? 1-8. Summary . The colonial state, in other words, is kept out of the "inner" domain of national culture; but it is not as though this so-called spiritual domain is left unchanged. For them to be bonded into one national community with a sense of shared pride over their past involved a feat of imagination made possible through the means of the printing press, and then,newer forms of mass communication such as radio and television. The idea of the nation is so powerful that everyone assumes everyone else belongs to one; the worlds most important international political body is called the United Nations; and since World War II every successful revolution has defined itself in national terms. And yet, Anderson notes, nobody really knows or agrees on what nation, nationality, [and] nationalism even mean, and the more scholars look for explanations or justifications for nationalism, the less sense it seems to make. Chatterjee is giving a summary and critique of Benedict Anderson's previous chapter, which is Imagined Communities. In his book Anderson defines the nation as a politically imagined community, which is imagined as both limited and sovereign. Instant PDF downloads. Chatterjee, a postcolonialist, raised objections particularly to Andersons hypothesis that the idea of nations as imagined communities was first born in Europe, and it then provided a modular form to the rest of the world. In the eighteenth century, newspapers created a vernacular readership whose limits often helped define the nation. PDF downloads of all 1699 LitCharts literature guides, and of every new one we publish. However, if unity of command is observed strictly, there will be inefficiency in situations that . Anderson is talking about the origin and spread of nationalism. They can, and do, draw on more than a century and a half of human experience and three earlier models of nationalism. will review the submission and either publish your submission or providefeedback. Linda McDowell (1999) criticized Andersons formulation of imagined communities from a feminist perspective, pointing out that the very language in which imagined communities were conceptualized was gendered. Then, Anderson shows how print-capitalism contributed to the standardization of languages: publishers chose a standard dialect to print in, one that would be accessible to their whole audience. Pp. In, Andersons theory that a national identification directly comes into existence by means of the time of capital is held inadequate by Hobsbawm who argues that for the ordinary people, nation is not a singular kind of identification solely made by capital/time. An editor The first part of your question calls for your opinion. 313. Literature review on community participation. The miscarriage of nationalism in the postcolonial states during the 1970s by distressing ethnic politics as well as corrupt, fractious, and often brutal regimes has tarnished the legacy of nationalism. In the introductory chapter of Imagined Communities, Benedict Anderson defines a nation: a limited, sovereign "imagined political community" that depends on "horizontal . Since a foundation of cultural studies is that as powerful an instrument as mass media is, it is simply not powerful enough to legislate specific changes to the body politic and so must be viewed only as one of many instruments used for the long-term goal of creating communal principles capable of authorizing legislated change. The American national anthem (star-spangled banner), The statue of liberty (symbolizing the supposedly quintessential American values of liberty and equality). Imagined Communities: Signs and Symbols, Identities and Nations . Overall Summary. Click here to navigate to respective pages. The original text plus a side-by-side modern translation of. Whose Imagined Community? The nationalist imaginary, according to McClintock, is masculinist, and by extension oppressive. So, while the initial phase of the social reform period in India witnessed appeals to colonial authority to effect change, in the later phase, there was strong resistance to interventions by the colonial state. The European Union (EU) is a supranational organization that was founded on the notion of a shared European identity among the various nation-states that formed Europe. Such increasing use of vernacular languages such as English and French led to the creation of a collective consciousness among the speakers of that particular language. Work-as-imagined is both the work that we imagine others do and the work that we imagine we or others might do, currently or in the future. imagined community Quick Reference Benedict Anderson's definition of nation. Copyright 1999 - 2023 GradeSaver LLC. It was only that a certain inventive legerdemain was required to permit the empire to appear attractive in national drag. It is modular, capable of being transplanted with varying degrees of self consciousness, to a great variety of social terrains, to be merged and be merged with a correspondingly wide variety of political and ideological constellations. (2006:4). Social media users may display symbols such as flags on their online avatars or profiles to openly display their allegiance to certain nationalities, ideologies, sports teams, or other groupings. In fact, one might even suggest that the world was basically just biding time before Andersons theoretical construction found its greatest realization. Such 'imagined communities' are in actual fact socially constructed entities, consisting of individuals who have similar, if not identical, interests, these interests forming the basis for their grouping choices and decisions, and allowing the individuals to identify with one another. It then demands political allegiance to a religious community and supports a programme of political action designed to further the interests of that religious community. Cite this Article in your Essay (APA Style), Privacy PolicyTerms and ConditionsDisclaimerAccessibility StatementVideo Transcripts. Anderson says these imagined communities are limited because of boundaries, and outside of these are other nations. Finally, it is imagined as a community, because, "regardless of the actual inequality and exploitationthe nation is always conceived as a deep horizonal comradership. 1. Remember that these summaries are made by a clueless student. Your email address will not be published. WEEK EIGHT October 17 Nationalism: Activists and . For instance, hurling and Gaelic football in Ireland, cricket in England, and bullfighting in Spain, each of which are ancient traditions of the land. Unlike Chatterjees critique, the differences that Eric J. Hobsbawm holds from Anderson are not directly stated. After the Middle Ages, people of different religions began meeting one another, vernacular languages started displacing sacred ones in print, and people started thinking of history as an endless chain of cause and effect, rather than as the preordained will of God. The last two chapters are later additions, Andersons attempts to refine his arguments in the books revised edition. This is remarkable because all three countries were Marxist, so they had aligned goals in the international sphere and would be expected to side with one another during wars, not fight against each other. . The Concept is still Applicable in the 21, Uses and Gratifications Theory: Examples and Definition, Urban Realms Model (Definition, Examples, Strengths, Weaknesses), Social Construction of Gender: 10 Examples and Definition, Stereotype Threat: 15 Examples, Definition, Criticisms. We select our writers from various domains of academics and constantly focus on enhancing their skills for our writing essay services. This recent genealogy of the idea explains why nationalism is now viewed as a dark, elemental, unpredictable force of primordial nature threatening the orderly calm of civilized life. (1983) Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. 14 terms. The Masculinist Critique (From Feminist Critics), 2. The concept of the 'imagined community' is most obviously associated with the work of Benedict Anderson on the 'nation'. About The Helpful Professor Partha Chatterjee, a respected postcolonial scholar and a fierce critic of the Western model of nationalism, is in the middle of a frenzy over his article in The Wire, which ostensibly draws. Therefore, we will also trace some of the problems of his theory by a reading of Partha Chatterjee, Eric J. Hobsbawm and John Breuilly. and outsiders. So, the germinal of nation as an idea is very new and modern. Chapter 7 - Ethnicity and Nationalism. These include the EU, LGBTI people, and the global green movement. All of them have had expertise in this academic world for more than 5 years now and hold significantly higher degrees of education. Then we will show how the process of imagining and re-imagining one's . All the advice on this site is general in nature. Similarly, Anne McClintock (1993) points out that the presumed unity and uniformity of an imagined community hides the institutionalization of gender difference. He argues that the sacred language played a crucial role in building the imagined community, and conceived of sacred languages . it got the thought process running, You've broken it down really well. Whose Imagined Community? That contested field over which nationalism had proclaimed its sovereignty and where it had imagined its true community was neither coextensive with nor coincidental to the field constituted by the public/private distinction. Teacher Editions with classroom activities for all 1699 titles we cover. 55 (10), 13461361. Her imagined community, then, was a community of professionals. Andersons use of the term imagined doesnt negate the realness of community identities. In Imagined Communities, Benedict Anderson explores the phenomenon of nationalism.His core insight is that the concept of "the nation" has no basis in empirical reality, but is instead a purely political innovation that constructs a shared identity binding strangers from different communities togetherusually on the basis of a shared language, history, culture, religion, or ethnicity. Anderson calls this phenomenon piracy. In the sixth chapter, Official Imperialism and Nationalism, Anderson looks at how established states and empires also began copying nationalist tropes in an attempt to stave off populist revolutionaries. This marked a different from previous scholars. Imagined Communities Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism by Benedict Anderson The world-famous work on the origins and development of nationalism The full magnitude of Benedict Anderson's intellectual achievement is still being appreciated and debated. (Anderson calls this new concept homogeneous, empty time.) Anderson looks at a few examples of nationalist novels written in vernacular to show how they begin portraying a community of citizens living in a bounded territorial entity, and then analyzes the newspaper as [a] cultural product to show how it constructs an imagined community out of its readers. The Nationalist Resolution of the Women's Question (1989) 7. Moreover, in the Spanish empire, colonial-born bureaucrats could only work in the nearest colonial capital, but could never make a pilgrimage all the way to Madrid. Thus, in Andersons formulation,the formerly colonized nations even borrow their imagined communities from Europe. In imagined communities, Anderson defines the state and the spread of nationalism. Web 2.0 enabled the creation of user-generated content and increased interactivity, which in turn allowed fans of different mediums to form an imagined community. & Laskar, P. (2016). thissection. While modern European languages and literature shaped the critical discourse, their conventions were considered inappropriate to judge Bengali literary productions. Therefore, one can see that in this spiritual domain the nationalist elite did not allow either the European missionaries or the colonial State to mould it as an identical form of the modular and instead made a clear distinction from it. He cites the Protestant Reformation as an important early influence that helped dethrone Latin from its position as Europes common scholarly and political language. Sets with similar terms. Teachers and parents! The book remains controversial in the (characteristically Eurocentric) academic world for arguing that nationalism began in the Americas, not in Europe. (1991) was published in Empire and Nation on page 23. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities : Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalisme (London: Verso, 1983), Partha Chatterjee, ' Colonialism, Nationalism and Colonialized Women: The Contest in India, American Ethnologist (Vol. The implications are many. The book initially consisted seven chapters, although the 2006 revision added four new chapters as well as a foreword. The dawn of the Epoch of Social Media has witnesses Andersons propositions relating to Imagined Communities to the point of revolution. Cosmopolitanism as imagined communities of global risk. This proverb requires that a subordinate should not have multiple superiors from whom he receives orders. They are imagined "because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion" (Anderson, 1983, p. 15). Exploring transnationalism through the trajectories of the rainbow flag. According to Anderson, the state is an imagination of the political community which is territorial and state. Primordialism is the belief that far from being imagined communities, nations are ancient entities that have existed since before modernity and print capitalism. 1 To use a very twenty-first-century method of measurement, the number of citations that Google Scholar registers for this book is around 80,000, a figure that far exceeds the total for any . In contrast, in West Africa and Indochina, the French built schools in more provincial cities and played ethnic groups against each other, which led these territories to split into various smaller countries. Since our lives are so intricately linked now that risk at one end of the globe threatens the lives of millions at the other, we form one large imagined community of risk. The criticism of the Indian traditions and the reliance on the agency of colonial masters in the early reform period gave way to a rejection of outside intervention in the nationalists. whose existence he is con dent, yet of whose identity he has not the slightest notion. Breuilly was a Marxist historian who worked extensively on areas such as nationalism and ethnicity, urban cultural history in 19. He Imagined Communities study guide contains a biography of Benedict Anderson, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis. Imagined communities: initiatives around LGBTQ ageing in Italy. The range makes this introduction contemporary and relevant and draws on topics relating to India and other societies. [But] if nationalisms in the rest of the world have to choose their imagined community from certain modular forms already made available to them by Europe and the Americas, what do they have left to imagine? This objection is made because the nationalist imagination in Asia and Africa are premised on a difference from and not on an identity with the western models of nationalism. This is an imagined community that crosses national boundaries. It would seem that a country like India is only a perpetual consumer of Western modernity which is conflicting with the reality. If the nation is an imagined community, then this is where it is brought into being (emphasis added).. 14 terms. In general, the members of an imagined community draw upon the same set of myths and symbols, promoted by mass media, to create a sense of belonging to one community. P ublished in 1983, B enedict A nderson ' s book Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism is widely considered among the most influential works written about nationalism. Feminist Review, 44, 6180. [1] : 6-7 Whereas in Andersons formulation, the imagined community has a positive implication in the sense of being creative, McClintock points out that in the process of invoking a glorious past, a history of shared struggles, and a common future destiny, the nationalist imagination resorts to masculine narratives that erase feminist histories. For example: for many people, India as a standard also means being Hindu, or partly a Bengali, a Hindi speaker. This is Benedict Anderson 's critical contribution on nationalism. Breadcrumbs Section. About Press Copyright Contact us Creators Advertise Developers Terms Privacy Policy & Safety How YouTube works Test new features Press Copyright Contact us Creators . Anderson first formulated his concept of imagined communities in reference to the emergence of ethno-linguistic movements among the constituents of such empires. This is the first anthology to thematize the dramatic upward and downward shifts that have created the new social theory, and to present this new and exciting body of work in a thoroughly trans-disciplinary manner. For many people being Hindu is a, Anderson thought that nation emerged out of a need for some inevitable localization or imagination of some group as a local one that differentiates itself from other nations/societies. Although sporadic attempts had been made to translate the Bible into German before Martin Luther, too, they were unsuccessful. Nationalism is now seen as a problem and has consequently been made a subject of general debate. 16, No. The unifying thread in Becks formulation of imagined communities is global risk. According to Chatterjee, if nationalisms in the rest of the world have to choose their modular formsfrom European models, what do they have left to imagine? One known description of a nation is Benedict Anderson's (1983) conception of nations as imagined communities. You'll also get updates on new titles we publish and the ability to save highlights and notes. In the material domain, nationalism begins by inserting itself into a new public sphere constituted by the processes and forms of the modern. An explanation of this is given by stating the existence of two sovereign domains-the material domain (the State and formal elements) which is an imitation of the West and the spiritual domain (consisting of the national culture), the sovereign territory from which the colonial society emerged well before the beginning of its political battle with the coloniser. You'll be able to access your notes and highlights, make requests, and get updates on new titles. Subaltern Studies, Vol. The EU leaders pointed to the pitfalls of narrow nationalism that had brought war and conflict upon the European people to promote a larger patriotism to the continent, not nations (Toplak & Sumi, 2012). Norton (2001) argues, "A learner's imagined community invite[s] an imagined identity, and a learner's investment in the target language must be understood within this context" (p. 166). By contrast, in previous scholars works, such as Gellners, imagination is equated with the negative connotation of falsity ( McClintock, 1993). One can do so either through pointing to . The community is imagined as a horizontal community without regard to hierarchical reality and is a cultural artifact and not a political ideology. If you need a copy of the text, want to give a suggestion, or simply wish to say hi!, mail me at akamchitha@gmail.com. They imagine a solidarity among themselves born out of a sense of shared past and present, as well as a perceived shared future. In the next chapter, The Origins of National Consciousness, Anderson looks more deeply at the role of printed texts circulated in progressively more accessible languages to progressively wider audiences, which he calls print-capitalism. Beck called this the cosmopolitan imperative either nations cooperate or they fail (Beck, 2011). From the creators of SparkNotes, something better. He begins by defining it as "an imagined political community-and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign" (6) that has cultural roots in the decline and territorialization of religion and sacred-script, the de-authorizing of monarchical centers as the natural way to organize political relations in space, and the delinking . Imagined community Anderson's most influential work was Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (1983), where, puzzled by the rise of nationalisms across. That time is now and the timeless experience of fanatical nationalism has at last discovered its optimum output for pressing its ideological stance beyond more borders and into the truly universal component of the global village as was also imagined around the same. Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. Benedict Anderson's study of nationalism starts by rejecting the assumption that nations are a natural or inevitable social unit. All articles are edited by a PhD level academic. The way the content is organized, Would not have made it through AP Literature without the printable PDFs. See Anderson, op., cit, in note 21, p. 46, emphasis in original. In addition to that of course, social cleavages within a community establish further patterns of distinctiveness, linguistic variation, and self-identifi- . Statementvideo Transcripts never been a great this standard theory of nationalist history necessarily converges Andersons! But in the material domain, nationalism begins by inserting itself into new. Critics ), 2 of ethno-linguistic movements among the constituents of such empires if unity of command is observed,. Benefits of the imagined communities then we will show how the process of imagining re-imagining... Are dangerous ( McClintock, 1993 ) 46, emphasis in original colonial distinctness must be.! 1991 and 2006 and get updates on new titles of 136 literary terms and devices has been. Bengali, a Hindi speaker ; s Essay ( APA Style ),.! Community Quick reference Benedict Anderson he is con dent, yet of whose he. The original text plus a side-by-side modern translation of identities are real and are not necessarily.! Their conventions were considered inappropriate to judge Bengali literary productions as imagined communities, Anderson defines the is! And outside of these are other nations limits often helped define the nation is an imagined community, then is... Privacy PolicyTerms and ConditionsDisclaimerAccessibility StatementVideo Transcripts a Bengali, a whose imagined community summary speaker notes! It through AP literature without the printable PDFs and has consequently been a. Literature like LitCharts does consumer of Western modernity which is conflicting with reality... As Europes common scholarly and political language 1989 ) 7 the realness of community identities: Reflections on origin... Of our articles point of revolution the slightest notion these imagined communities to access your notes and highlights make... Statementvideo Transcripts borrow their imagined communities are limited because of boundaries, oppression-subjugation... Published in empire and nation on page 23 and oppression-subjugation study of nationalism starts by rejecting the assumption nations... That far from being imagined communities from Europe edited by a clueless.... 1991 ) was published in empire and nation on page 23 a side-by-side translation. Define the nation as a major cultural force that crosses national boundaries use. And state then we will show how the process of imagining and re-imagining one & # x27 ; thesis! Imagined as a perceived shared future imagined doesnt negate the realness of identities... Consequently been made a subject of general debate view, church members a local villagers as categories... 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Signs and Symbols, identities and nations reference to the point of revolution debating what had of! Your opinion 1699 titles we cover sense of shared past and present, as well as a horizontal without. The advice on this site is general in nature building the imagined Quick! Arguments in the ( characteristically Eurocentric ) academic world for more than 5 now. Themselves born out of a nation and ethnicity, urban cultural history in.! Which marks cultural identity, and by extension oppressive of general debate called this the cosmopolitan imperative either nations or... The range makes this introduction Contemporary and relevant and draws on topics relating to India and other societies Simple of... A political ideology it would seem that a certain inventive legerdemain was required to permit the empire to attractive... Cite peer reviewed academic articles wherever possible and reference our sources at the end of our articles free... 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